CIE IGCSE Chemistry: Extended

Coal – A solid fuel mainly composed of carbon.
Natural Gas – A gaseous fuel primarily composed of the hydrocarbon methane (CH₄).
Petroleum (Crude Oil) – A complex liquid mixture of hydrocarbons that can be separated into useful fractions through fractional distillation.

Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are compounds made up of only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Examples:
- Methane (CH₄) – The simplest hydrocarbon.
- Ethane (C₂H₆) and Propane (C₃H₈) – Also found in natural gas.
- Octane (C₈H₁₈) – A component of petrol.

Fractional distillation of petroleum

Fractional distillation is a process that separates crude oil into useful fractions based on boiling points.

Process:

Crude oil is heated to 450°C and enters a fractionating column.
The column has a temperature gradient (hot at the bottom, cool at the top).
Different hydrocarbon fractions condense at different heights based on their boiling points.
Small molecules (lower boiling points) rise higher, while large molecules (higher boiling points) stay lower.
Each fraction is collected and used for different purposes.

Properties of the fractions

From bottom (large molecules) to top (small molecules), fractions change as follows:

Bottom of Column (e.g., Bitumen) - to - Top of Column (e.g., Refinery Gas)

Chain Length - Longer hydrocarbon chains - to - Shorter hydrocarbon chains

Volatility - Low (does not evaporate easily) - to - High (evaporates easily)

Boiling Point - High (above 350°C) - to - Low (below 25°C)

Viscosity - Thick & Sticky - to - Thin & Runny

Uses of petroleum fractions

Each fraction has different uses based on chain length and boiling point.

Refinery Gas - Used as gas for heating and cooking (contains methane, ethane, propane, butane).

Gasoline (Petrol) - Used as fuel for cars.

Naphtha - Used as a chemical feedstock to make plastics, medicines, and dyes.

Kerosene (Paraffin) - Used as jet fuel and heating oil.

Diesel Oil (Gas Oil) - Used as fuel for diesel engines (trucks, trains).

Fuel Oil - Used as fuel for ships and home heating.

Lubricating Oil - Used in lubricants, waxes, and polishes.

Bitumen - Used for road surfacing and roofing.

Formulae

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Molecular formulae

The molecular formula of a compound tells us:

The exact number of atoms of each element present in a single molecule.
The type of atoms in the molecule (i.e., which elements it contains).

Examples of Molecular Formulae:

Water = H₂O (2 hydrogen atoms, 1 oxygen atom)

Methane = CH₄ (1 carbon atom, 4 hydrogen atoms)

Ethanol = C₂H₆O (2 carbon, 6 hydrogen, 1 oxygen atom)

Glucose = C₆H₁₂O₆ (6 carbon, 12 hydrogen, 6 oxygen atoms)

Empirical formulae

The empirical formula of a compound represents the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms or ions present in the compound. Unlike the molecular formula, it does not show the exact number of atoms—only their simplest ratio.

Examples of Empirical Formulae:

Hydrogen Peroxide (H₂O₂) = HO (The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is simplified from 2:2 to 1:1)

Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) = CH₂O (The ratio 6:12:6 simplifies to 1:2:1)

Ethene (C₂H₄) = CH₂ (The ratio 2:4 simplifies to 1:2)

Water (H₂O) = H₂O (Already in its simplest form so cannot be simplified)

Displayed formulae

The displayed formula of a molecule shows all the atoms and all the bonds between them.

Examples:

Ethene (C₂H₄)

H H

| |

C ═ C

| |

H H

Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)

H H

l l

H - C - C - O - H

l l

H H

Structural formulae

A structural formula is a clear way to show how atoms are arranged in a molecule without drawing every bond explicitly.

Examples:

Ethene: CH₂=CH₂
Ethanol: CH₃CH₂OH
Methyl ethanoate (an ester): CH₃COOCH₃

Structural isomers

Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements of atoms.

Examples of Structural Isomers:

Butane (C₄H₁₀) Isomers:
- Straight-chain butane: CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₃
- Branched isomer (2-methylpropane): CH₃CH(CH₃)CH₃
Butene (C₄H₈) Isomers:
- But-1-ene: CH₃CH₂CH=CH₂
- But-2-ene: CH₃CH=CHCH₃

These isomers have different physical and chemical properties due to variations in structure.

Homologous series

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Homologous series

A functional group is a specific atom or group of atoms that determines the chemical properties of a homologous series.
A homologous series is a family of organic compounds that:

Have a similar chemical structure.
Contain the same functional group, which determines their chemical properties.
Follow the same general formula.

Examples of Homologous Series:

Alkanes:

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons (contain only single bonds). They are less reactive than unsaturated compounds.

- General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
- Functional group: None (only single bonds)
- Examples: Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆)

Alkenes:

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons (contain at least one double bond). They are more reactive than unsaturated compounds.

General formula: CₙH₂ₙ
Functional group: C=C (double bond)
Examples: Ethene (C₂H₄), Propene (C₃H₆)

Alcohols:

General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH
Functional group: –OH (hydroxyl group)
Examples: Methanol (CH₃OH), Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)

Carboxylic acids:

General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₁COOH
Functional group: –COOH (carboxyl group)
Examples: Methanoic Acid (HCOOH), Ethanoic Acid (CH₃COOH)

General characteristics of a homologous series

Differ by a –CH₂– Unit
- Each successive compound differs by a CH₂ (methylene) group.
- Example: Methanol (CH₃OH) → Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) → Propanol (C₃H₇OH).
Gradual Trend in Physical Properties
- As the number of carbon atoms increases, properties like boiling point, melting point, and viscosity change in a predictable way.
- Example: Boiling points of alkanes increase as chain length increases due to stronger intermolecular forces.
Similar Chemical Properties
- Since they have the same functional group, they undergo similar reactions.
- Example: All alkenes react with bromine water in an addition reaction to turn it colorless.

Alkanes

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Structure

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. They are less reactive than unsaturated compounds.

General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
Functional group: None, alkanes have single covalent bonds between carbon atoms (C–C).
Have the suffix -ane.

Formulae

Methane: The simplest alkane with single C–H bonds.

Molecular formula: CH₄
Empirical formula: CH₄
Structural Formula: CH₄
Displayed formula:

H—C—H

Ethane

Molecular formula: C₂H₆
Empirical formula: CH₃
Structural formula: CH₃CH₃
Displayed formula:

H H

| |

H—C—C—H

| |

H H

Propane

Molecula formula: C₃H₈
Empirical formula: C₃H₈
Structural Formula: CH₃CH₂CH₃
Displayed formula:

H H H

| | |

H—C—C—C—H

| | |

H H H

Butane

Molecular formula: C₄H₁₀
Empirical formula: C₂H₅
Structural Formula: CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₃
Displayed formula:

H H H H

| | | |

H—C—C—C—C—H

| | | |

H H H H

Reactions

Generally Unreactive: Alkanes do not react easily because their C–C and C–H bonds are strong and nonpolar.
Combustion: Alkanes burn in oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O).
- Complete combustion: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O
- Incomplete combustion (limited oxygen) produces carbon monoxide (CO) or carbon (soot).
Substitution Reactions with Chlorine: Alkanes react with chlorine under UV light.

Substitution with chlorine

A substitution reaction occurs when one atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group.
In alkanes, substitution reactions happen with halogens (e.g., chlorine).

Activation energy (Eₐ) is provided by UV light, breaking Cl₂ into chlorine radicals (Cl•).
Example: Methane and Chlorine Reaction
- Equation:

Methane + chlorine → chloromethane + hydrochloric acid

CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl

H—C—Cl

If the reaction continues, further substitution can occur, forming dichloromethane (CH₂Cl₂), trichloromethane (CHCl₃), or even tetrachloromethane (CCl₄).

Alkenes

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Structure

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons (contain at least one double bond). They are more reactive than unsaturated compounds.

General formula: CₙH₂ₙ
Functional group: Alkenes contain at least one C=C double bond.
Have the suffix -ene.

Formulae

Ethene

Molecular formula: C₂H₄
Empirical formula: CH₂
Structural Formula: CH₂=CH₂
Displayed formula:

H H

| |

C═C

| |

H H

Propene

Molecular formula: C₂H₄
Empirical formula: CH₂
Structural Formula: CH₂=CH₂
Displayed formula:

H H H

| | |

H—C—C═C—H

But-1-ene

Molecular formula: C₄H₈
Empirical formula: CH₂
Structural Formula: CH₃CH₂CH=CH₂
Displayed formula:

H H H H

| | | |

H—C—C—C═C—H

| |

H H

But-2-ene

Molecular formula: C₄H₈
Empirical formula: CH₂
Structural Formula: CH₃CH=CHCH₃
Displayed formula:

H H H H

| | | |

H—C—C═C—C—H

| |

H H

Manufacture

Cracking is the process of breaking down large alkane molecules from crude oil into smaller, alkenes and hydrogen.
Reasons for cracking:
- To produce smaller, more useful hydrocarbons (e.g., gasoline, diesel).
- To make more valuable alkenes, which are used to manufacture plastics and chemicals.
- To produce hydrogen gas (H₂), which is used in fuel and ammonia production.
This process requires:
- High temperature (~600-700°C)
- A catalyst (e.g., alumina or silica)

Example Reaction:

C10H22 → C5H10 + C3H6 + H2

Test for alkenes

Bromine water (aqueous bromine) test distinguishes between alkanes (saturated) and alkenes (unsaturated).

Alkane (saturated) = No reaction = Bromine water stays orange

Alkene (unsaturated) = Addition reaction occurs = Bromine water turns colorless

Addition reactions

In an addition reaction, a molecule adds across the C=C double bond.
Unlike substitution reactions (which produce multiple products), only one product is formed.
Examples:

Bromine (Br₂) – Test for Unsaturation

Reaction with bromine in atmospheric conditions:

ethene + bromine → Dibromoethane

C₂H₄ + Br₂ → C₂H₄Br₂

Structural formula for dibromoethane: CH₂BrCH₂Br
Displayed formula for dibromoethane:

Br H

| |

H—C—C—H

| |

H Br

Hydrogen (H₂) – Hydrogenation

Reaction with hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst (150°C):

Ethene + hydrogen → Ethane

C₂H₄ + H₂ → C₂H6

Steam (H₂O) – Hydration

Reaction with steam in the presence of an acid catalyst (e.g., phosphoric acid, H₃PO₄):

Ethene + water → Ethanol

C₂H₄ + H₂O → C₂H5OH

Alcohols

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Structure

General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH
Functional group: –OH (hydroxyl group)
Have the suffix -ol.

Formulae

Methanol

Molecular formula: CH₃OH
Empirical formula: CH₃OH
Structural Formula: CH₄
Displayed formula:

H—C—O—H

Ethanol

Molecular formula: C₂H₅OH
Empirical formula: C₃H₇OH
Structural formula: CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₃
Displayed formula:

H H

| |

H—C—C—O—H

| |

H H

Propan-1-ol

Molecular formula: C₃H₇OH
Empirical formula: C₃H₇OH
Structural Formula: CH₃CH₂CH₂OH
Displayed formula:

H H H

| | |

H—C—C—C—O—H

| | |

H H H

Propan-2-ol

Molecular formula: C₃H₇OH
Empirical formula: C₃H₇OH
Structural Formula: CH₃CH(OH)CH₃
Displayed formula:

H H H

| | |

H—C—C—C—H

| | |

H O H

Butan-1-ol

Molecular formula: C₄H₉OH
Empirical formula: C₄H₉OH
Structural Formula: CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂OH
Displayed formula:

H H H H

| | | |

H—C—C—C— C—O—H

| | | |

H H H H

Butan-2-ol

Molecular formula: C₄H₉OH
Empirical formula: C₄H₉OH
Structural Formula: CH₃CH(OH)CH₂CH₃
Displayed formula:

H H H H

| | | |

H—C—C—C—C—H

| | | |

H H O H

Manufacture by fermentation

Raw Material: Glucose (from plants, e.g., sugarcane, corn).
Conditions Required:
- Temperature: 25–35°C (optimal for yeast enzyme activity).
- Yeast (contains enzymes to convert glucose into ethanol).
- Absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions to prevent oxidation to carbon dioxide and water).
Reaction:

Glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide

C6H1₂O6 → C₂H₅OH + 2CO₂

Process:
- Glucose is broken down by yeast into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
- The process stops when ethanol reaches ~15% concentration because alcohol kills yeast.
- Ethanol is then purified by fractional distillation.
Advantages
- Uses renewable resources (e.g., plants).
- Requires low energy input.
- Can be produced in developing countries.
Disadvantages
- Slow process (batch process).
- Produces impure ethanol (requires distillation).
- Requires large areas of farmland, which may lead to food shortages.

Manufacture by catalytic hydration

Raw Material: Ethene (from crude oil cracking).
Conditions Required:
- Temperature: 300°C
- Pressure: 6000 kPa (60 atm)
- Catalyst: Phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) catalyst
Reaction:

Ethene + water → ethanol

C₂H4 + H₂O → C₂H₅OH

Process:
- Ethene reacts with steam in the presence of an acid catalyst to form ethanol.
- The product is then condensed and purified.
Advantages
- Fast, continuous process.
- Produces pure ethanol (no need for distillation).
- More efficient and scalable.
Disadvantages
- Uses non-renewable resources (crude oil).
- Requires high temperature and pressure, increasing costs.
- Not sustainable in the long term.

Uses of ethanol

(a) As a Solvent

Dissolves substances that water cannot (e.g., paints, perfumes, medicines, and cosmetics).
Used in industrial processes and chemical extractions.

(b) As a Fuel

Used as bioethanol (a renewable fuel).
Mixed with petrol to reduce carbon emissions (e.g., E10 fuel: 10% ethanol, 90% petrol).
Used in spirit burners and alcohol stoves.

Combustion of ethanol

Ethanol is a renewable fuel that burns efficiently in oxygen.

Complete combustion reaction:

Ethanol + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

C₂H₅OH + 3O₂ → 2CO₂ + 3H₂O

Observation: Ethanol burns with a clean blue flame.

Carboxylic acids

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Structure

General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₁COOH
Functional group: –COOH (carboxyl group)
Have the suffix -oic acid.

Formulae

Methanoic acid

Molecular formula: CH₂O₂
Empirical formula: CH₂O₂
Structural Formula: HCOOH
Displayed formula:

H—C—O—H

Ethanoic acid

Molecular formula: C₂H₄O₂
Empirical formula: CH₃OH
Structural Formula: CH₃COOH
Displayed formula:

H O

| ||

H—C—C—O—H

Propanoic acid

Molecular formula: C3H6O₂
Empirical formula: CH₃OH
Structural Formula: CH3CH2COOH
Displayed formula:

H H O

| | ||

H—C—C—C—O—H

| |

H H

Butanoic acid

Molecular formula: C₄H8O₂
Empirical formula: CH₃OH
Structural Formula: CH3CH2CH2COOH
Displayed formula:

H H H O

| | | ||

H—C—C—C—C—O—H

| | |

H H H

Reactions of ethanoic acid

Reaction with Metals

When ethanoic acid reacts with a reactive metal (e.g., magnesium or zinc), hydrogen gas is released, and a metal ethanoate (salt) is formed.
General Equation:

Metal + Ethanoic Acid → Metal Ethanoate + Hydrogen

Example: Reaction with Magnesium

Magnesium + Ethanoic Acid → Magnesium Ethanoate + Hydrogen

Mg + 2CH3COOH → (CH3COO)₂Mg + H₂

Reaction with Bases (Neutralisation Reaction)

Ethanoic acid reacts with metal hydroxides or oxides (bases) to form a salt (metal ethanoate) and water.
General Equation:

Ethanoic Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Example: Reaction with Sodium Hydroxide

Ethanoic Acid + Sodium hydroxide → Sodium ethanoate + Water

CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H₂O

Reaction with Carbonates

Ethanoic acid reacts with metal carbonates to produce carbon dioxide, water, and a salt.
General Equation:

Ethanoic Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + carbon dioxide + water

Example: Reaction with Sodium Carbonate

Ethanoic acid + sodium carbonate → sodium ethanoate + carbon dioxide + water

2CH3COOH + Na₂CO3 → 2CH3COONa + CO₂ + H₂O

Formation of ethanoic acid

Oxidation using Acidified Potassium Manganate(VII) (KMnO₄)

Ethanol can be oxidized to ethanoic acid using acidified potassium manganate(VII).
The purple KMnO₄ solution turns colorless as it oxidizes ethanol.

Equation:

C₂H₅OH + [O] → CH3COOH + H₂O

Oxidation by Bacterial Action (Vinegar Production)

Ethanol in wine or cider is oxidized by bacteria (acetobacter) in the presence of oxygen to form ethanoic acid.
This process happens in the production of vinegar.

Equation:

C₂H₅OH + O₂ → CH3COOH + H₂O

Formation of esters

Ethanoic acid reacts with alcohols in the presence of a strong acid catalyst (e.g., concentrated sulfuric acid) to form esters and water.

General Equation:

Carboxylic Acid + Alcohol → Ester + Water

Example: Formation of Ethyl Ethanoate

Ethanoic acid + Ethanol → Ethyl ethanoate + Water

CH₃COOH + C₂H5OH → CH₃COOC₂H₃ + H₂O

Displayed Formula for Ethyl Ethanoate:

H O H H

| || | |

H—C—C—O—C—C—H

| | |

H H H

Observation: A sweet-smelling ester is formed.
Application: Used in perfumes, flavorings, and solvents.

Polymers

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What are polymers

Polymers are large molecules formed by linking many small molecules called monomers.
The process of forming polymers is known as polymerisation.

Examples of Polymers:

Natural Polymers: Cellulose, proteins, DNA.
Synthetic Polymers: Poly(ethene), nylon, polyester.

Formation

Addition polymerisation is a process where monomers with double bonds (like ethene) join together to form a polymer without losing any small molecules.

Formation of Poly(ethene):

Monomer: Ethene (CH₂=CH₂)
Polymer: Poly(ethene) or polyethylene
Reaction: Double bonds in ethene monomers open up and link together to form a long chain.

Equation:

n CH₂=CH₂ → −(CH₂−CH₂)−n

Displayed Formula:

H H H H H H H H

| | | | | | | |

C = C + C = C → — C—C—C—C—

| | | | | | | |

H H H H H H H H

Poly(ethene) is flexible, durable, and waterproof, making it ideal for plastic bags, bottles, and containers.

Addition polymerisation

Monomers: Alkenes
Reaction Type: Opening of a C=C bond
By-products: No by-product
Example Polymer: Poly(ethene), Poly(propene)

Formation of Poly(ethene)

Monomer: Ethene (CH₂=CH₂)
Polymer: Poly(ethene)

Reaction:

Condensation polymerisation

Monomers: Monomers with two functional groups
Reaction Type: Reaction between two different monomers
By-products: Small molecule (H₂O or HCl) is released
Example Polymer: Nylon (polyamide), PET (polyester)

(a) Formation of polyamides (e.g., Nylon)

Monomers:
- Dicarboxylic acid (HOOC–R–COOH)
- Diamine (H₂N–R–NH₂)

Reaction:

Dicarboxylic acid + Diamine → Polyamide + Water

Monomers of nylon:

Nylon polymer:

(b) Formation of polyesters (e.g., PET)

Monomers:
- Dicarboxylic acid (HOOC–R–COOH)
- Diol (HO–R–OH)

Reaction:

Dicarboxylic acid + Diol → Polyester + Water

Monomers of PET:

PET polymer:

PET can also be broken down into its original monomers and re-polymerized to form new plastic products.

Proteins

Proteins are polymers made from amino acid monomers.
The amide bonds in proteins are called peptide bonds.
Amino Acid General Structure:

Proteins have similar bonding to nylon, making them natural polyamides.

Plastics

Plastics are synthetic materials made from polymers.
They are lightweight, durable, and moldable, which makes them suitable for various applications like packaging, electronics, and textiles.

The properties that make plastics useful also create disposal challenges:

Durability: Plastics take hundreds of years to decompose, leading to long-term environmental impacts.
Resistance to Chemicals: Limits the breakdown of plastics in natural environments.
Lightweight: Easily transported by wind and water, contributing to widespread pollution.

Environmental challenges of plastics

(a) Disposal in Landfill Sites

Plastics occupy large volumes in landfills.
Slow decomposition leads to long-lasting environmental clutter.
Potential release of toxic chemicals into soil and groundwater.

(b) Accumulation in Oceans

Plastics enter oceans through rivers, drains, and littering.
Marine life ingestion of plastics leads to injury or death.
Formation of microplastics (tiny plastic particles) that enter food chains.

Incinerating plastics can release harmful gases like dioxins and furans, which are toxic and carcinogenic.
Contributes to air pollution and climate change.

Key terms

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Addition Reaction: A chemical reaction where a molecule adds across a double bond, forming a single product.

Alcohols: A homologous series of organic compounds containing a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group.

Alkanes: A homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons, which have only single bonds between carbon atoms.

Alkenes: A homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons, containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond.

Carboxylic Acids: A homologous series of organic compounds containing a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group.

Catalyst: A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed in the reaction.

Condensation Polymerisation: A type of polymerisation where monomers join together and a small molecule, such as water, is released as a by-product.

Displayed Formula: A diagram showing all atoms and all bonds between them in a molecule.

Empirical Formula: The simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.

Esters: Organic compounds formed from the reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid.

Fermentation: An anaerobic biochemical process where a substance is broken down by enzymes (typically from yeast), producing alcohol.

Fractional Distillation: A process used to separate crude oil into different fractions based on boiling point.

Functional Group: A specific atom or group of atoms within a molecule that is responsible for the molecule’s characteristic chemical reactions.

Homologous Series: A family of organic compounds with similar structures, the same functional group, and that follow a general formula.

Hydrocarbons: Organic compounds made up only of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Hydration: A chemical reaction that involves the addition of water to a molecule.

Molecular Formula: A chemical formula that shows the exact number and type of atoms in a molecule.

Monomers: Small molecules that combine to form polymers.

Polymerisation: The process of joining small molecules (monomers) together to form a large molecule (polymer).

Polymers: Large molecules made up of many repeating smaller units (monomers).

Saturated Hydrocarbon: A hydrocarbon that contains only single bonds between carbon atoms.

Structural Formula: A formula that represents how atoms are arranged in a molecule without showing every bond explicitly.

Structural Isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements of atoms.

Substitution Reaction: A reaction in which one atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbon: A hydrocarbon containing at least one double or triple bond between carbon atoms.

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CIE IGCSE Chemistry: Extended

Topic 11: Organic chemistry

Fuels

The three types of fossil fuel

Hydrocarbons

Fractional distillation of petroleum

Properties of the fractions

Uses of petroleum fractions

Formulae

Molecular formulae

Empirical formulae

Displayed formulae

Structural formulae

Structural isomers

Homologous series

Homologous series

General characteristics of a homologous series

Alkanes

Structure

Formulae

Reactions

Substitution with chlorine

Alkenes

Structure

Formulae

Manufacture

Test for alkenes

Addition reactions

Alcohols

Structure

Formulae

Manufacture by fermentation

Manufacture by catalytic hydration

Uses of ethanol

Combustion of ethanol

Carboxylic acids

Structure

Formulae

Reactions of ethanoic acid

Formation of ethanoic acid

Formation of esters

Polymers

What are polymers

Formation

Addition polymerisation

Condensation polymerisation

Proteins

Plastics

Environmental challenges of plastics

Key terms

Contents

Quiz